创业管理重点

admin管理员组

文章数量:1794759

创业管理重点

1.分析环境

法律环境

Common law: details must be written in the contract to be enforced. Past court case and decision act as precedents. 普通法:细节必须写在合同中才能执行。过去的法庭案件和判决可作为先例

Civil law: assumes promises will be enforced without specifying the details. Interpretation of this law is based on reference to codes and statutes. 民法:假定承诺可以强制执行，但不说明细节。对本法的解释以参考法典和成文法为基础。

Islamic law : based on religious beliefs伊斯兰教法:基于宗教信仰

2.管理的相互依存

MNC：跨国公司

Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR)企业社会责任 –Promoting a vision of business accountability to a wide range of stakeholders, besides shareholders and investors. Key areas of concern are environmental protection and the wellbeing of employees, the community and civil society in general, both now and in the future. Although it is very difficult to implement a generalized code of morality and ethics in individual countries, such guidelines do provide a basis of judgment regarding specific situation.

企业社会责任（CSR）——向股东和投资者以外的广泛利益相关者宣传企业责任愿景。关注的关键领域是环境保护和员工、社区和公民社会的福祉，无论是现在还是将来。虽然很难在个别国家实施普遍的道德和伦理准则，但这些准则确实为具体情况提供了判断依据。

Creating Shared Value(CSV)创造共享价值 –Expanding the pool of economic and social value. By viewing the growth, profitability, and sustainability of corporation as intermeshed with societal and economic progress in the market in which it operates.扩大经济和社会价值。通过将公司的增长、盈利能力和可持续性视为与市场上的社会和经济进步相结合。

创造共享价值（CSV）——扩大经济和社会价值池。通过将公司的增长、盈利能力和可持续性视为与其经营所在市场的社会和经济进步相互关联。

Global Corporate Culture全球企业文化（重点）: An integration of the business environments in which firms currently operate. This integration result from the gradual dissolution of traditional boundaries and from the many intricate interconnections among MNCs, internationally linked securities markets, and communication network.公司目前运营的业务环境的集成。这种整合源于传统边界的逐渐解体，源于跨国公司、国际联系的证券市场和通信网络之间错综复杂的相互联系。

几个道德准则：

莫拉普世主义：用所有文化都接受的道德标准的需要

民族中心主义：无论东道国的道德体系如何，都要运用母国的道德

道德相对主义:无论公司在哪个国家经营，都要遵守当地的道德规范

3.理解文化的作用

cultural qruotient (CQ)文化智商：that is, a measure of how well a person can adapt and manage effectively in culturally diverse（不同的） settings.也就是说，衡量一个人在不同文化背景下能够适应和有效管理的程度。

Cultural sensitivity文化敏感性(cultural empathy) is a sense of awareness and honest caring about another individual’s culture. It requires the ability to understand the perspective of those living in other societies and the willingness to put oneself in another’s shoes.文化敏感性（文化移情）是一种对他人文化的意识和真诚关怀。它需要理解生活在其他社会的人的观点，并愿意设身处地为他人着想。

Cultural Value Dimensions文化价值维度

Cultural variables result from unique sets of shared values among different groups of people. Values are a society’s ideas about what is good or bad, right or wrong. Values will influence people to likely behave differently under similar circumstances. 文化变量源于不同人群之间独特的共同价值观。价值观是一个社会关于什么是好的，什么是坏的，什么是对的，什么是错的观念。价值观会影响人们在类似情况下的行为。

a. Assertivenessrefers自信 to how much people in a society are expected to be tough, confrontational, and competitive, versus modest and tender.自信指的是一个社会中有多少人被期望是强硬的、对抗性的和有竞争力的，而不是谦逊和温柔的。

b. Future orientation未来导向 refers to the level of importance a society attaches to future-oriented behaviors such as planning and investing in the future.未来导向是指社会对未来导向行为的重视程度，如对未来的规划和投资。

c. Performance orientation measures绩效导向措施 how important performance improvement and excellence are in society and whether people are encouraged to strive for continuous improvement.绩效导向衡量绩效改进和卓越在社会中的重要性，以及是否鼓励人们努力追求持续改进。

d. Humane orientation人文导向 is the extent to which a society encourages and rewards people for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind.人文导向是指社会鼓励和奖励公平、利他、慷慨、关爱和善良的人的程度。

Hofstede’svalue dimensions霍夫斯泰德的价值维度

One useful framework for understanding how basic values underlie organizational behavior was proposed by Hofstede, the result of research on over 116,000 people in 50 countries. Hofstedeproposes four value dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity.权力距离、不确定性回避、个人主义和阳刚之气。

Power distance权力距离 is the level of acceptance by a society of unequal distribution of power in institutions. The extent to which subordinates accept unequal power is socially determined.权力距离是社会对机构中权力分配不均的接受程度。下属接受不平等权力的程度是由社会决定的。

Uncertainty avoidance避免不确定性 refers to the extent to which people in a society feel threatened by ambiguous situations. In a business context, this value results in formal rules and procedures designed to provide more security and more career stability.

Individualismrefers个人主义 to the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only and neglect the needs of society. Hofstede’sfindings indicate that most countries scoring high on individualism have both a higher gross national product and a freer political system than those scoring low on individualism.人们只照顾自己和直系亲属而忽视社会需要的倾向。霍夫斯泰德的发现表明，与个人主义得分较低的国家相比，大多数个人主义得分较高的国家既有较高的国民生产总值，也有更自由的政治制度。

Masculinity男子气概 refers to the degree of typical ―masculine‖ values, such as assertiveness, materialism, and lack of concern for others. Femininity in a society emphasizes concern for others, relationships with others, and quality of life.指典型的“男性化”价值观的程度，如自信、物质主义和不关心他人。社会中的女性特质强调关心他人、与他人的关系以及生活质量。

Critical operational value differences临界操作值差

Some specific culturally based variables which cause frequent problems for Americans in international management are time, change, material factors, and individualism. 美国人在国际管理中经常遇到的一些特定的文化变量是时间、变化、物质因素和个人主义

a. Time: To Americans, time is a temporal value (as opposed to eternal/permanent), making it something to be saved, scheduled, and spent with precision so that it is not wasted. In many parts of the world, people view time from different perspectives, often based on religious beliefs 对美国人来说，时间是一种暂时的价值(而不是永恒的/永久的)，所以要把它保存起来，安排好时间，精确地花费，这样它就不会被浪费了。在世界的许多地方，人们从不同的角度看待时间，通常基于宗教信仰

b.Change: The value of change varies greatly across cultures. An accepted Western attitude toward change is that an individual can exert some control over the future and can manipulate events, particularly in business. Individuals feel they have some internal control. 改变的价值在不同的文化中差异很大。西方对变革的一种公认的态度是，个人可以对未来施加一些控制，可以操纵事件，特别是在商业领域。个人感觉他们有一些内部控制。

c. Material factors: Americans consume resources at a far greater rate than the rest of the world. The attitude of Americans toward nature is that it is there to be used for their benefit. This differs from the attitudes of Indians an电视伴音d Koreans, who worship nature as a part of their religious beliefs. 物质因素:美国人消耗资源的速度远远超过世界其他地区。美国人对待自然的态度是，自然是为他们服务的。这与印度人和韩国人的态度不同，他们把崇拜自然作为他们宗教信仰的一部分。

d. Individualism: In general, Americans tend to work and conduct their private lives independently, valuing individual achievement, accomplishment, promotion, and wealth above group goals. In other countries, this individualistic attitude is not valued, and a greater emphasis is placed on such things as conformity, cooperation, and the strength of the family or community个人主义:总的来说，美国人在工作和生活上都倾向于独立，个人成就、成就、晋升和财富的价值高于集体目标。在其他国家，这种个人主义的态度不被重视，而更强调的是一致、合作以及家庭或社区的力量

4.跨文化交流

Cultural variables in the communication process 交际过程中的文化变量

Cultural variables that can influence a person’s perceptions have been identified through research. The cultural variables are: attitudes, social organization, thought patterns, roles, language (spoken or written), nonverbal communication (including kinesics behavior, paralanguage, proxemics, and object language), and time. 通过研究已经确定了可以影响一个人的感知的文化变量。文化变量包括:态度、社会组织、思维模式、角色、语言(口头或书面)、非语言交流(包括身势学行为、副语言、近身学和客体语言)和时间。

 a. Attitudes态度: ethnocentric attitudes are a particular source of noise in cross-cultural communications.在跨文化交流中，种族中心主义态度是一个特殊的噪声源。

 b. Stereotyping刻板印象: when a person assumes that every member of a society or subculture has the same characteristics or traits. 当一个人认为一个社会或亚文化的每个成员都有相同的特征或特征时。

 c. Social organization社会组织: our perceptions can be influenced by differences in values, approach, or priorities relative to the kind of social organizations to which we belong. 我们的看法可能会受到价值观、方法或与我们所属的社会组织有关的优先事项的差异的影响。

 d. Thought patterns思维模式: the logical progression of reasoning varies across cultures. 推理的逻辑进程因文化而异。

 e. Roles角色: societies differ considerably as to what they consider the role of a manager. 不同的社会对于管理者角色的看法有很大的不同。

 f. Language语言 can be a barrier to communication when one party has difficulty understanding the other’s language, when there is a lack of understanding of local idioms through a failure to understand body language, or fcommandlinerom using poor or faulty translations. More than just conveying informat方证ion, language also conveys cultural and social understandings from one generation to the next. International managers need a good command of the local language or competent interpreters. The direct translation of specific words does not assure the conveyance of meaning. For example, in Asian culture the word “yes” means only that I have heard you. Politeness, the desire to say only what the listener wishes to hear, adds noise to the communication process. 当一方难以理解另一方的语言时，当由于无法理解肢体语言而缺乏对当地习语的理解时，或者由于使用了糟糕或错误的翻译时，沟通就会成为障碍。语言不仅仅是传递信息，它还传递着一代又一代的文化和社会理解。国际管理人员需要精通当地语言或有能力的口译员。直接翻译特定的词语并不能保证意思的传达。例如，在亚洲文化中，"是"这个词

 g. Nonverbal communication非言语交际 (body language): Behavior that communicates without words. Studies have shown that subtle nonverbal messages account for 65 to 93 percent of interpreted communication. 无语言交流的行为。研究表明，微妙的非语言信息占解释沟通的65%到93%。

 h. Time时间: The way people regard time is a variab油炸食品的危害le that communicates culture. In monochronic time systems, time is linear. Time has a past, present, a奢侈品皮具护理nd future. In monochronic systems, which are generally found in individualistic cultures, peopl诈金花e generally concentrate on one thing at a time, adhere to time commitments and are accustomed to short-term relationships

The media for nonverbal communication can be categorized into four types: 语言交际的媒介可以分为四类:

(1) kinesic（通过身体动作和手势表意的）[语] 身势语的

(2) proxemics 近体距离

(3) paralanguage 超语言（如呻吟声、叹息声等）

(4) object language 目标语言

1. Kinesic behavior身势语的行为 refers to body movements—posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact. Although such gestures may be universal, their meanings are culturally specific. For example, during speech Americans will look right at you, whereas the British will look away. 肢体行为指的是身体动作——姿势、手势、面部表情和眼神交流。虽然这些手势可能是通用的，但它们的含义在文化上是特定的。例如，在演讲时，美国人会直视你，而英国人会把目光移开。

2. Proxemics人际距离学 deals with the influence of proximity and space on communication—including personal space and office space or layout 近距学研究的是距离和空间对交流的影响，包括个人空间和办公空间或布局

3. High-contact cultures 高接触的文化 prefer a close sensory involvement; e.g., prefer to stand close and touch a great deal.

Low-contact cultures低接触的文化 prefer less sensory involvement. High-contact cultures are mostly located in warmer climates. There is a correlation between Hofstede’s me一个出轨女人的自白asure of individualism and cultural contact: low-contact cultures are more individualistic, high-contact cultures are more collectivist. 高接触的文化更喜欢亲密的感官参与;例如，宁愿站得近一些，多多接触。低接触的文化倾向于较少的感官参与。高接触的文化大多位于气候较温暖的地区。霍夫斯泰德衡量个人主义和文化接触之间存在相关性:低接触的文化更个人主义，高接触的文化更集体主义。

4. Paralanguage副语言（指手势语等） is the meaning conveyed by how something is said as a result of the rate of speech, the tone and inflection of voice, and other noises, laughing or yawning and so on.副语言是通过说话的速度、语调和语调变化以及其他噪音、大笑或打哈欠等来表达的意思。

5. Object language (or material culture)对象语言 refers to how we communicate through material artifacts or design对象语言(或物质文化)是指我们如何通过物质制品或设计进行沟通

5.跨文化谈判与决策

The Negotiation Process (Stage One: Preparation) 谈判过程(第一阶段:准备)

 Following the preparation and planning stage, which is usually done at the home office, the core of the actual negotiation takes place on-site in the foreign location (or at the manager’s home office if the other team has decided to travel there). In some cases, a compromise on the location for negotiations can signal a cooperative strategy, which Weiss calls ―Improvise an Approach: Effect Symphony‖—a strategy available to negotiators familiar with each other’s culture and willing to put negotiation on an equal footing. Exhibit 5-3 shows 12 variables to consider when preparing to negotiate.在准备和计划阶段之后，这通常是在总部完成的，实际谈判的核心是在国外现场进行的(或者在经理的总部，如果另一个团队决定去那里)。在某些情况下，在谈判地点达成妥协可能是一种合作策略的信号，韦斯称之为“随机应变:效果交响曲”，这是一种适合于熟悉对方文化并愿意将谈判置于平等地位的谈判者的策略。表5-3显示了12个变量，以考虑当准备

The Negotiation Process (Stage Two: Relationship Building ) 谈判过程(第二阶段:建立关系)

 The process of relationship building is regarded with much more significance in most parts of the world than it is in America. In many countries, such as Mexico and China, it is personal commitments to individuals that form the basis for enforcement of contracts, rather than the legal system, as used in America. 与美国相比，世界上大多数国家都更重视建立关系的过程。在许多国家，如墨西哥和中国，是对个人的个人承诺构成了合同执行的基础，而不是美国使用的法律体系。

 It is usually recommended that those new to negotiating should use an intermediary—someone who already has the trust and respect of the foreign managers involved. 通常建议那些刚开始谈判的人应该找一个中间人，这个中间人应该已经得到了相关外国经理的信任和尊重。

 Posturing can be used as a bridge between the more formal stages of negotiating and the stages of relationship building. This phase should result in a spirit of cooperation. To help ensure this result, negotiators must use words like ―respect‖ and ―mutual benefit‖ rather than language that would suggest arrogance, superiority, or urgency在谈判的正式阶段和建立关系的阶段之间，故作姿态可以充当桥梁。这一阶段应产生合作精神。为了确保这一结果，谈判者必须使用-尊重‖和-互惠‖等词语，而不是使用那些暗示傲慢、优越感或紧迫感的语言

The Negotiation Process谈判程序 (Stage Three: Exchanging TaskRelated Information ) (第三阶段:交换与任务相关的信息)

 In the exchanging task-related information stage , each side typically makes a presentation and states its position; a question-and-answer session usually ensues, and alternatives are discussed. From an American perspective, this represents a straightforward, objective, efficient, and understandable stage. Mexican negotiators are usually suspicious and indirect, presenting little substantive material and more lengthy, evasive conversation. French negotiators enjoy debate and conflict and will often interrupt presentations to argue about an issue even if it has little relevance to the topic being presented. The Chinese also ask many questions of their counter- parts, and delve specifically and repeatedly into the details at hand; conversely, Chinese presentations contain only vague and ambiguous material..

在与任务相关的信息交换阶段，每一方都进行陈述并陈述自己的立场;接着通常会有一个问答环节，然后讨论替代方案。从美国人的角度来看，这代表了一个直接、客观、有效和可理解的阶段。墨西哥谈判者通常是多疑的和间接的，很少提供实质性的材料，更多的是冗长的，含糊其辞的谈话。法国谈判者喜欢辩论和冲突，经常会为了争论一个问题而打断别人的陈述，即使这个问题与原文没有什么关系

 Adler suggests that negotiators should focus not only on presenting their situation and needs but also on showing an understanding of their opponents’ viewpoints. Focusing on the entire situation confronting each party encourages the negotiators to assess a wider range of alternatives for resolution, rather than limiting themselves to their preconceived, static positions. She suggests that to be most effective, negotiators should prepare for meetings by practicing role reversal. 阿德勒建议谈判者不应只专注于陈述自己的处境和需求，还应表现出对对手观点的理解。把注意力集中在每一方所面临的整个局势上，可以鼓励谈判人员评估更广泛的解决办法，而不是把自己限制在他们预先设想的、静态的立场上。她建议，为了最有效，谈判者应该通过练习角色转换来为会议做准备。

The Negotiation Process (Stage Four: Persuasion ) 谈判过程(第四阶段:说服)

 In the next phase of negotiations, persuasion, the hard bargaining starts. Typically, both parties try to persuade the other to accept more of their position and to give up some of their own. 在谈判的下一个阶段，说服，艰难的谈判开始了。通常情况下，两党都试图说服对方更多地接受自己的立场，并放弃自己的一些立场。

 Studies of negotiating behavior have revealed the use of certain recognizable tactics, which skilled negotiators recognize and use. Asians tend to work out details of the negotiation ahead of time, many times through the ―back door.对谈判行为的研究已经揭示了某些可识别策略的使用，这些策略是熟练的谈判者能够识别和使用的。亚洲人倾向于提前弄清楚谈判的细节，很多时候是走后门。‖

 Dirty tricks may be used in the persuasion stage of negotiation, including rough tactics designed to put negotiators in a stressful situation physically or psychologically. 在谈判的说服阶段，可能会使用一些卑鄙的手段，包括让谈判者在身体上或心理上处于紧张状态的粗暴策略。

 The most subtle behaviors微妙的行为 in the negotiation process, and the most difficult to deal with, are nonverbal messages非语言信息. Nonverbal behaviors are ingrained aspects of culture used by people in their daily lives; they are not specifically changed for the purposes of negotiation. 谈判过程中最微妙、最难处理的行为就是非语言信息。非语言行为是人们在日常生活中使用的文化中根深蒂固的方面;它们并不是为了谈判的目的而特别改变的。

The Negotiation Process (Stage Five: Concessions and Agreements )谈判过程(第五阶段:让步与协议)

 In the last stage of negotiation, tactics vary greatly across cultures. Well-prepared negotiators are aware of various concessio中国科普博览n strategies and have decided ahead of time what their own concession strategy will be. 在谈判的最后阶段，不同文化之间的策略差异很大。准备充分的谈判者知道各种让步策略，并提前决定自己的让步策略。

 Research in the United States indicates starting with extreme positions attains better end results.美国的研究表明，从极端姿势开始可以获得更好的结果。

 Again, at the final stage of agreement and contract, cultural values determine how these agreements will be honored. Whereas Americans take contracts very seriously, Russians often renege on their contracts. The Japanese, on the other hand, consider a formal contract to be somewhat of an insult and a waste of time and money in legal costs, since they prefer to operate on the basis of understanding and social trust同样，在协议和合同的最后阶段，文化价值观决定了如何履行这些协议。美国人对待合同非常认真，而俄罗斯人经常违反合同。另一方面，日本人认为正式合同是一种侮辱，浪费时间和金钱的法律成本，因为他们更喜欢在理解和社会信任的基础上运作

6.制定市场策略

Steps in Developing International and Global Strategies发展国际和全球战略

Step 1. Establish Mission and Objectives设立使命和目标

 The mission of an organization is its overall raison d’être, or the function it performs in society. This mission charts the direction of the company and provides a basis for strategic decision making. 个组织的使命是它的整体意义，或者说是它在社会中发挥的功能。这个任务描绘了公司的方向，并为战略决策提供了基础。

 A firm’s global objectives usually fall into the areas of marketing, profitability, finance, production, and research and development (It provides more detail and describe the scope of mission). 一个公司的全球目标通常包括市场营销、盈利能力、财务、生产和研发(它提供了更多的细节，并描述了任务的范围)。

 Goals for market volume and profitability are usually set higher for international than for domestic operations because of the allowance for greater risk involved. In addition, financial objectives must consider different tax regulations in other countries and exchange rate 国际业务的市场规模和盈利目标通常比国内业务设定的要高，因为要考虑到更大的风险。此外，财务目标必须考虑其他国家不同的税收法规和汇率

Step 2. Assess External Environment评估外部环境

 This assessment includes environmental scanning and continuous monitoring to keep abreast of variables around the world that are pertinent to the firm and that have the potential to shape its future by posing new opportunities (or threats).这种评估包括环境扫描和持续监测，以跟上世界各地与公司相关的变量，这些变量有可能通过带来新的机遇(或威胁)来塑造公司的未来。

 Environmental scanning is the process of information gathering and forecasting relevant trends, competitive actions, and circumstances that will affect operations in geographic areas of potential interest. This activity should be conducted on three levels—global, regional, and national. 环境扫描是收集信息和预测有关趋势、竞争行动和将影响潜在利益的地理区域的业务的情况的过程。这项活动应该在全球、区域和国家三个层面上进行。

 The first step in analyzing the competition is to assess the relevant industry structures as they influence the competitive arena in the particular country (or region) being considered. 分析竞争的第一步是评估相关的产业结构，因为它们影响到所考虑的特定国家(或地区)的竞争领域。

 The firm can also choose varying levels of environmental scanning. The firm should conduct global environmental analysis: multinational, regional, and national.公司还可以选择不同层次的环境扫描。公司应进行全球环境分析:跨国的、区域的和国家的。

Step 3. Analyze Internal Factors and Competitive analysis 内部因素分析和竞争性分析

 This analysis determines which areas of the firm’s operations represent strengths or weaknesses (currently or potentially) compared to competitors. The internal analysis focuses on the company’s resources, operations, and global synergies. The strengths and weaknesses of the firm’s financial and managerial expertise and functional capabilities are evaluated to determine what key success factors (KSFs) the company (e.g. Technological capability: Apple, Distribution channels: Wal-Mart, Promotion capabilities: Disney) has and how well they can help the firm exploit foreign opportunities. 这种分析决定了公司运营的哪些领域代表了与竞争对手相比的优势或劣势(当前或潜在的)。内部分析侧重于公司的资源、运营和全球协同效应。评估公司财务和管理专业知识和职能能力的优缺点，以确定公司的哪些关键成功因素(例如:技术能力:苹果，分销渠道:沃尔玛，推广能力:以及他们能在多大程度上帮助公司开发海外机遇。

 All companies have strengths and weaknesses. Management’s challenge is to identify both and to take appropriate action. Many diagnostic tools are available for conducting an internal resource audit. Financial ratios may reveal an inefficient use of assets that is restricting profitability; a sales-force analysis may reveal that the sales force is an area of distinct competence for the firm所有公司都有优点和缺点。管理的挑战是识别两者并采取适当的行动。可以使用许多诊断工具进行内部资源审计。财务比率可能揭示了资产的低效使用，从而限制了盈利能力;对销售人员的分析可能揭示出，销售人员是公司具有独特竞争力的领域

Competitive analysis（重要）

 The firm’s managers assess its capabilities and key success factors compared to those of its competitors. This stage of strategic formulation is often called a SWOT analysis (an acronym for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats), in which the firms capabilities relative to its competitors is assessed as pertinent to the opportunities and threats in the environment for those firms. It is important to consider comparative advantages in entering a foreign market. 与竞争对手相比，该公司的管理人员评估其能力和关键成功因素。战略制定的这一阶段通常被称为SWOT分析(优势、劣势、机会和威胁的首字母缩写)，在此过程中，企业相对于其竞争对手的能力被评估为与这些企业所处环境中的机会和威胁相关的。在进入外国市场时考虑比较优势是很重要的。

 Most companies develop their strategy around key strengths, or distinctive competencies. Managers must also assess their firm’s weaknesses. Of course, the subjective perceptions, motivations, capabilities, and goals of the managers involved in such diagnoses frequently cloud the decision-making process大多数公司都是围绕关键优势或独特的能力来制定战略的。经理们还必须评估公司的弱点。当然，参与这类诊断的管理者的主观认知、动机、能力和目标常常会影响决策过程

Strategic decision-making models战略决策模型

The international manager has a choice of strategic models to guide decision making. The roles and interactions of the models are conceptualized in Exhibit 6-6. The institution-based theory looks at existing and potential risks and influences in the host area. Porter’s industry-based model examines five forces which determine the dynamics within the industry. The resource-based approach identifies a firm’s unique niche or competitive advantage国际管理者可以选择战略模式来指导决策。模型的角色和交互在表6-6中进行了概念化。制度基础理论着眼于东道国地区存在的和潜在的风险和影响。波特的基于行业的模型考察了决定行业动态的五种力量。基于资源的方法确定了公司独特的利基或竞争优势

Step 4. Evaluate Global and International Strategic Alternatives 评估全球和国际战略选择

 The fourth major step in the strategic planning process is for m香港仁安医院anagers to consider the advantages of various strategic in light of the competitive analysis. There are two levels of strategic alternatives that a firm must consider: global and national. 战略规划过程中的第四个主要步骤是管理者根据竞争分析考虑各种战略的优势。企业必须考虑两个层次的战略选择:全球战略和国家战略。

Step 5. Evaluate Entry Strategy Alternatives 评估进入战略选择（重要）

 氰化氢For a multinational corporation, a more specific set of strategic alternatives focuses on different ways to enter a foreign market. This section examines the various entry and ownership strategies available to firms, including exporting, licensing, franchising, contract manufacturing, offshoring, service-sector outsourcing, turnkey operations, management contracts, joint ventures, and fully owned subsidiaries set up by the firm and e-business. These alternatives are not mutually exclusive; several may be employed at the same time. 对于跨国公司来说，更具体的战略选择集中在不同的方式进入国外市场。本节审查公司可采用的各种进入和所有权战略，包括出口、许可证、特许经营、合同制造、离岸生产、服务部门外包、交钥匙业务、管理合同、合资企业和由公司和电子商务设立的完全拥有的子公司。这些替代方案并不相互排斥;同时可以雇用几个人

 Exporting is a relatively low-risk way to begin international expansiadason or to test out an overseas market. An experienced firm may want to handle its exporting functions by appointing a manager or establishing an export department. Alternatively, an export management company (EMC) may be retained to take over some or all exporting冒险岛战神任务 functions, including: dealing with host country regulations, tariffs, duties, documentation, letters of credit, currency conversion, and so forth出口是开始国际扩张或试探海外市场的一种风险相对较低的方式。有经验的公司可能希望通过任命一位经理或成立一个出口部门来处理其出口职能。或者，可以保留一个出口管理公司(EMC)来接管一些或所有出口职能，包括:处理东道国法规、关税、关税、文件、信用证、货币兑换等

 Licensing许可: International licensing agreements grant rights to a firm in the host country to either produce or sell a product, or both. Licensing is especially suitable for the mature phases of the product life cycle. 许可:国际许可协议授予在东道国的公司生产或销售产品的权利，或两者兼得。授权特别适用于产品生命周期的成熟阶段。

 Franchising特许经销权: Franchising involves relatively little risk. The franchiser licenses its trademark, products, services, and operating principles for an initial fee and ongoing royalties. Franchising can be an ideal strategy for small businesses, because outlets require little investment in capital or human resources. 特许经营:特许经营的风险相对较小。特许人授权其商标、产品、服务和经营原则的初始费用和持续的特许权使用费。对于小型企业来说，特许经营是一种理想的战略，因为特许经营在资本和人力资源方面几乎不需要投入

 Contract Manufacturing合同制造: a common means of utilizing cheaper labor overseas is to contract for production of finished goods or component parts, a process called contract manufacturing. 合同制造:利用海外廉价劳动力的一种常见方式是承包制成品或零部件的生产，这一过程称为合同制造。

 Offshoring离岸: when a company moves one or all of its factories from the ―home‖ country to another country to avoid trade barriers or take advantage of lower costs of production离岸外包:指一家公司将其一家或全部工厂从母国转移到另一个国家，以避免贸易壁垒或利用生产成本较低的优势

 Service Sector Outsourcing服务业外包: the process of setting up overseas offices, call centers, and research labs to low-wage countries such as India. 服务业外包:在印度等低工资国家设立海外办事处、呼叫中心和研究实验室的过程。

 Turnkey Operations交钥匙工程: in a turnkey operation, a company designs and constructs a facility abroad, trains local personnel, and then turns the key over to local management for a fee. 交钥匙运营:在交钥匙运营中，公司在国外设计和建造设施，培训当地人员，然后将钥匙交给当地管理人员并收取一定费用。

 Management Contracts管理合同: a management contract gives the rights to a foreign company to manage the daily operations of a business, but not to make decisions regarding ownership, financing, or strategic and policy changes.管理合同赋予外国公司管理企业日常运营的权利，但不做有关所有权、融资或战略和政策变化的决定。

 International Joint Ventures 国际合资企业(IJVs): A joint venture involves an agreement by two or more companies to produce a product or service jointly. Ownership is shared, typically by an MNC and a local partner. This strategy facilitates rapid entry into new markets by means of an already established partner who has local contacts and familiarity with local operations 合资企业是指由两个或两个以上的公司共同生产一种产品或服务的协议。所有权通常由一家跨国公司和一家当地合作伙伴共同拥有。这一战略有助于快速进入新市场，通过一个已经建立的合作伙伴，谁拥有当地的联系和熟悉当地的业务

Step 6. Decide on Strategy 决定策略

 Fully Owned Subsidiaries全资子公司: In countries where a fully owned subsidiary is permitted, an MNC that wants total control of its operations can start its own product or service business from scratch or it may acquire an existing firm in the host country. This represents the highest level of risk for a firm. 全资子公司:在允许拥有全资子公司的国家，想要完全控制自己运营的跨国公司可以从零开始自己的产品或服务业务，也可以收购所在国的现有公司。这代表了公司的最高风险水平。

 E-Business电子商务公司: E-business is an entry strategy at the local level; as such the failure risk of entry depends greatly on the country or region, even though risk is generally low globally. 电子商务是地方层面的一种进入策略;因此，进入的失败风险很大程度上取决于国家或地区，尽管在全球范围内风险普遍较低。

 The choice of one or more entry strategies will depend on 一个或多个进入策略的选择将取决于

(1) a critical evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of each in relation to the firm’s capabilities; 对每一项与公司能力相关的优势和劣势进行批判性评估;

(2) the critical environmental factors; and 关键环境因素;

(3) the contribution that each choice would make to the overall mission and objectives of the company. When it comes down to a choice of entry strategy or strategies for a particular company, there are more specific factors relating to that firm’s situation that must be taken into account. These include: factors relating to the firm itself, the industry in which it operates, location factors, and venture-specific factors. 每个选择对公司整体使命和目标的贡献。当涉及到一个特定公司的进入战略或战略的选择时，有一些与该公司的情况有关的更具体的因素必须考虑进去。这些因素包括:与公司本身有关的因素，它所经营的行业，位置因素，风险特定因素。

 After consideration of these factors, some entry strategies will no longer be appropriate. Managers will decide between equity and non-equity based alternatives. Equity modes may be wholly-owned operations or equity joint ventures. Non-equity modes may be contractual agreements and export 考虑到这些因素，一些进入策略将不再合适。基金经理将在基于股权和非股权的选择中做出选择。

 Gupta and Govindarajan propose a hierarchy of decision factors but consider two initial choice levels. The first is the extent to which the firm will export or produce locally. The second is the extent of ownership control over activities that will be performed locally. There are many choice combinations available. Gupta和Govindarajan 提出了一个决策因素层次，但考虑两个初始选择水平。第一个是公司将在多大程度上出口或在当地生产。第二个是对将在当地进行的活动的所有权控制的程度。有许多可供选择的组合。

 International strategic formulation requires a long-term perspective.国际战略制定需要长远眼光 Entry strategies, therefore, need to be conceived as part of a welldesigned, overall plan. In addition, strategic choices at various levels often are influenced by cultural factors, such as a long-term versus a short-term perspec黄金股票tive. Hofstede found that most people in countries such as China and Japan generally had a longer-term horizon than those in Canada and the United States 国际战略制定需要长远眼光。因此，进入策略需要作为一个精心设计的整体计划的一部分来考虑。此外，各级战略选择往往受到文化因素的影响，例如长期视角和短期视角。霍夫斯泰德发现，中国和日本等国家的大多数人通常比加拿大和美国人有更长远的眼光

7.实施策略

Strategic alliances战略联盟are partnerships between two or more firms which decide they can better pursue their mutual goals by combining their resources—financial, managerial, technological—as well as their existing distinctive competitive advantages. Alliances—often called cooperative strategies—are transition mechanisms that propel the partners’ strategy forward in a turbulent environment faster than would be possible for each company alone 战略联盟是指两个或两个以上的公司之间的伙伴关系，这些公司决定通过合并它们的资源(财务、管理、技术)以及现有的独特竞争优势来更好地追求共同的目标。联盟——通常被称为合作战略——是一种过渡机制，它能在动荡的环境中推动合作伙伴的战略向前发展，其速度比单个公司要快得多

Alliances typically fall under one of four categories联盟通常可以分为四类

1. Joint ventures: Two or more companies create an independent company. 合资企业:两个或两个以上的公司创建一个独立的公司 （重点记忆JV）

2. Equity strategic alliances: two or more partners have different relative ownership shares (equity percentages) in the new venture. 股权战略联盟:两个或两个以上的合作伙伴在新企业中拥有不同的相对所有权份额(股权百分比)。

3. Nonequity strategic alliances: agreements are carried out through contract rather than ownership sharing. 非股权战略联盟:协议是通过合同而不是所有权分享来实现的。

4. Global strategic alliances: Working partnerships were found between companies (often more than two) across national boundaries and increasingly across industries.全球战略联盟:跨国公司(通常是两家以上)之间建立工作伙伴关系，并且越来越多地跨越行业

GUIDELINES FOR SUCCESSFUL ALLIANCES (非常重要）

E-commerce impact on strategy implementation电子商务对战略实施的影响

 Many firms decide to implement global e-commerce strategy by outsourcing the necessary tasks to companies that specialize in providing the necessary technology to organize transactions and follow through with the regulatory requirements. These specialists are called e许多公司决定实施全球电子商务战略，将必要的任务外包给专门提供必要技术来组织交易和遵循监管要求的公司。这些专家被称为e

commerce enablers. They help companies sort through different taxes, duties, language translations, and so on. These services allow small and medium-sized companies to go global without the internal capabilities to carry out global e-commerce functions. One such e商务推动者。他们帮助公司整理不同的税收、关税、语言翻译等等。这些服务使中小型企业在没有内部能力开展全球电子商务功能的情况下走向全球。一个这样的e

8.组织结构和控制系统

Integrated global structures一体化的全球结构

 To respond to increased product diversification and to maximize benefits from both domestic and foreign operations, a firm may choose to replace its international division with an integrated global structure. This structure can be organized along functional, product, geographic, or matrix lines. 为了应对产品多样化的增加，并从国内和国外经营中获得最大的利益，公司可以选择用一体化的全球结构取代其国际部门。这个结构可以按照功能线、产品线、地理线或矩阵线进行组织。

A matrix structure矩阵结构 is a hybrid organization of overlapping responsibilities矩阵结构是一种职责重叠的混合组织. The structure is developed to combine geographic support for global integration and local responsiveness. Exhibit 8-4 illustrates that lines of responsibility are drawn both vertically and horizontally, which can lead to confusion, communication problems, and conflict over having more than one boss. Although still used by some firms, more recently, it has generally fallen into disfavor 开发该结构是为了将对全球一体化的地理支持和本地响应性结合起来。如图8-4所示，职责线是纵向和横向划分的，这可能会导致混乱、沟通问题以及因拥有多个boss而产生的冲突。尽管一些公司仍在使用，但最近它已普遍失宠

The global functional structure全球功能结构 is designed on the basis of the company’s functions—production, marketing, and finance, and so forth. Foreign operations are integrated into the activities and responsibilities of each department to gain functional specialization and economies of scale. This structure results in 零部件英文plants that are highly integrated across products and that serve single or similar markets全球职能结构是根据公司的生产、营销、财务等职能来设计的。国外业务被整合到每个部门的活动和职责中，以获得职能专业化和规模经济。这种结构使得工厂的产品高度整合，服务于单一或相似的市场

For firms with diversified多样化的 product lines (or services) that have different technological bases and that are aimed at dissimilar or dispersed markets, a global product (divisional) structure全球产品(部门)结构 may be more strategically advantageous than a functional structure. In this structure, a separate division represents a single product (or product line). A general manager heads each division, and each is responsible for its own production and sales functions. Usually, each division is a strategic business unit (SBU)— a self-contained business with its own functional departments and accounting systems. With the global product (divisional) grouping, however, ongoing difficulties in the coordination of widely dispersed operations may result. One answer to this is to reorganize into a global geographic structure. In the global geographic (area) structure—the most common form of organizing foreign operations—divisions are created to cover geographic regions 对于拥有多样化产品线(或服务)、拥有不同技术基础并瞄准不同或分散市场的公司来说，全球产品(部门)结构可能比职能结构更具战略优势。在这个结构中，一个单独的部门代表一个单独的产品(或产品线)。一个总经理领导每个部门，每个部门负责自己的生产和销售职能。通常，每个部门都是一个战略业务单元(SBU)——一个独立的业务，有自己的职能部门和会计系统

For firms with diversified product lines多元化产品组装线 (or services) that have different technological bases and that are aimed at dissimilar or dispersed markets, a global product (divisional) structure may be more strategically advantageous than a functional structure. In this structure, a separate division represents a single product (or product line). A general manager heads each division, and each is responsible for its own production and sales functions. Usually, each division is a strategic business unit (SBU)— a self-contained business with its own functional departments and accounting systems. With the global product (divisional) grouping, however, ongoing difficulties in the coordination of widely dispersed operations may result. One answer to this is to reorganize into a global geographic structure. In the global geographic (area) structure—the most common form of organizing foreign operations—divisions are created to cover geographic regions 对于拥有多样化产品线(或服务)、拥有不同技术基础并瞄准不同或分散市场的公司来说，全球产品(部门)结构可能比职能结构更具战略优势。在这个结构中，一个单独的部门代表一个单独的产品(或产品线)。一个总经理领导每个部门，每个部门负责自己的生产和销售职能。通常，每个部门都是一个战略业务单元(SBU)——一个独立的业务，有自己的职能部门和会计系统

9.多元化产品组装线

Staffing for Global Operations 全球业务人员配备:

 Alternate philosophies of managerial staffing abroad are known as the ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric, and global approaches. 国外管理人员配置的替代哲学被称为民族中心主义、多中心主义、区域中心主义和全球方法。

1. Firms using the ethnocentric approach以本族为中心模式 fill key managerial positions with persons from headquarters. 采用种族中心主义方法的公司用总部的人员来填补关键的管理职位They use parent company nationals(PCN). Using PCNs offers the advantages of maintaining close control. In addition, PCNs are appropriate when high technical capability and/or experience in the parent company is required or when there is a concern for loyalty and protection of proprietary technology. Its disadvantages include the lack of opportunities for local managers (which could result in poor morale), expense, poor adaptation, and lack of effectiveness of expatriates. 他们使用母公司国民(海上灵光PCN)。使用pcn提供了保持密切控制的优点。此外，当需要高技术能力和/或在母公司的经验，或考虑到忠诚度和专有技术的保护时，pcn是合适的。它的缺点包括缺乏本地管理人员的机会(这可能会导致士气低落)、费用、适应能力差，以及外派人员缺乏效率。

2. With a polycentric staffing policy多中心的人员配备政策, local managers (HCNs—host country nationals) are hired to fill key positions in their own company. This approach is good when a firm is implementing a multinational strategy. It allows the firm to “act local.” In addition, these managers are familiar with the culture, language, and local norms. One disadvantage of a polycentric policy is the difficulty of coordinating activities and goals between the subsidiary and the parent company, including the potentially conflicting loyalties of the local manager. 在多中心的人员配备政策下，本地经理(hcn -东道国国民)被雇佣来填补他们自己公司的关键职位。当公司实施跨国战略时，这种方法很好。它允许公司“本地化行事”。此外，这些管理者熟悉当地的文化、语言和规范。多中心政策的一个缺点是难以协调子公司和母公司之间的活动和目标，包括潜在的冲突的忠诚的本地经理。

3. In the global staffing approach全球招聘, the best managers are recruited from within or outside of the company, regardless of nationality—a practice used for some time by many European multinationals. This policy provides a greater pool of applicants to choose from. Third country nationals bring cultural flexibility and adaptability to a situation; it can be more cost effective to transfer and pay managers from some countries than others在全球招聘的方式中，最好的经理是从公司内部或外部招聘的，而不考虑国籍——这是许多欧洲跨国公司一段时间以来采用的做法。这项政策提供了更多的申请人供选择。第三国国民带来了文化上的灵活性和对环境的适应性;与其他国家相比，从一些国家调任和支付管理人员的成本效益可能更高

Managing Expatriates管理外籍人士 (重要章节）

 Expatriate selection 外籍人士的选择

1. The selection of personnel for overseas assignments is a complex process. There are five expatriate success factors: 选拔驻外人员是一个复杂的过程。以下是5个外籍人士成功的因素:

1) job factors; 工作因素

2) relational dimensions, such as cultural empathy and flexibility; 关系维度，如文化同理心和灵活性;

3) motivational state; 动机状态

4) family situation; and 家庭状况

5) language skills. 语言技能

The relative importance of each factor is highly situational and difficult to establish.

2. Research by Mansour Javidan points to three major global mind-set attributes that successful expatriates possess: 曼苏尔·贾维丹(Mansour Javidan)的研究指出，成功的外派人员具备三大全球思维模式特征:

- Intellectual capital, or knowledge, skills, understanding, and cognitive complexity. 智力资本，或知识、技能、理解力和认知复杂性。

- Psychological capital, or the ability to function successfully in the host country through internal acceptance of different cultures, and a strong desire to learn from new experiences. 心理资本，或通过内部接受不同文化而在东道国成功运作的能力，以及从新的经验中学习的强烈愿望。

- Social capital, or the ability to build trusting relationships with local stakeholders, whether they are employees, supply ch广州地铁18号线最新线路图ain partners, or customers. 02/12/2019 p. 13 Managing Expatriates  Expatriate selection 社会资本，或与当地利益相关者建立信任关系的能力，无论他们是员工、供应链合作伙伴还是客户。02/12/2019第13页管理外籍人士外籍人士选择

3. The need to ascertain whether potential expatriates have the necessary cross cultural awareness and interpersonal skills is too often overlooked. In one study, the results found that the greatest predictive value of success in an overseas assignment was in the expat校园剧本riate characteristics of stress tolerance and extraversion确定潜在的外派人员是否具有必要的跨文化意识和人际交往技能的需要经常被忽视。在一项研究中，结果发现，海外任务成功的最大预测价值是海外人员的压力耐受性和外向性特征

Expatriation performance management 外籍人员绩效管理

 A large percentage of staffing overseas assignments with expatriates failures can be attributed to poor preparation and planning for the entry and reentry transitions of the manager and his or her family. The following is a synthesis of the factors frequently mentioned by researchers and firms as the major causes of expatriate failure: 在外派人员的海外工作失败中，很大一部分是由于经理及其家人对入职和再入职过渡的准备和计划不足。以下是研究人员和公司经常提到的外籍人士失败的主要原因的综合因素:

• Selection based on headquarters criteria rather than assignment needs 根据总部标准而不是分配需要进行选择

• Inadequate preparation training and orientation for the assignment 对任务的准备和培训不足

• Alienation or lack of support from headquarters 与总部疏远或缺乏支持

• Inability to adapt to local culture and working environment不能适应当地文化和工作环境

• Problems with spouse or children—poor adaptation, family unhappiness 配偶或孩子的问题——适应能力差，家庭不幸福

• Insuffi领英cient compensation and financial support 薪酬和财政支持不足

• Poor programs of career support and repatriation 糟糕的职业支持和遣返计划

Expatriate Training and Development 外派人员培训与发展

 A Global Relocation Trends Survey revealed that over 40 percent of expatriate managers end their foreign assignments early because of poor performance or an inability to adjust to the local environment. About half of the expatriates who do remain function at a low level of effectiveness. The direct cost alone of a failed expatriate assignment is estimated to be from $200,000 to $1.2 million. The indirect costs may be far greater. The demands on expatriate managers have always been as much a result of the multiple relationships that they have to maintain as they are of the differences in the host-country environment. Those relations include family relations, internal relations with people in the corporation, both locally and globally, especially with headquarters, external relations (suppliers, distributors, allies, customers, local community, etc.), and relations with the host government. It is important to pinpoint any potential problems that an expatriate may experience with those relationships so that these problems may be addressed during pre-departure training一项全球外派趋势调查显示，超过40%的外派经理会因为业绩不佳或无法适应当地环境而提前结束他们的外派工作。大约有一半的外籍人士仍然处于低效率状态。一项失败的外派工作的直接费用估计为$20万至$ 120万。间接成本可能要大得多。对外派经理的要求，既是他们必须维持的多种关系的结果，也是他们之间的差异的结果

10.培养全球管理骨干

Expatriate Career Management : Preparation, adaptation, and repatriation 外籍人士职业生涯管理:准备、适应和遣返

 Effective human resources management of a company’s international cadre does not end with the overseas assignment. It ends with the successful repatriation of the executive into company headquarters. 对公司国际干部进行有效的人力资源管理并不仅仅局限于海外派驻。最后，这位高管成功地回到了公司总部。

1. A study by Lazarova and Caligiuri found that repatriates who received supportive practices from their firms felt that their companies had an interest in their careers and well-being and so were more likely to stay with the firm upon reentry. Lazarova和Caligiuri的一项研究发现，那些从公司获得支持性实践的员工回国后，会觉得公司对他们的职业和福祉很感兴趣，因此更有可能在重返公司后继续留在公司。

2. Research has shown that employees commonly see overseas assignments as positive in most European, Japanese, and Australian companies because they consider international experience necessary for advancement to top management. 研究表明，大多数欧洲、日本和澳大利亚公司的员工普遍认为海外工作是积极的，因为他们认为国际经验是晋升到高层管理的必要条件

 Reverse culture shock occurs primarily because of difficulty of reintegration into the organization, but also, the longer a person is away, the more difficult it is to get back into the swing of things. 反向文化冲击的发生主要是因为很难重新融入组织，但同时，一个人离开的时间越长，就越难重新回到工作中。

 For companies to maximize the long-term use of their global cadre, they need to make sure that the foreign assignment and the reintegration process are positive experiences. This means careful career planning, support while overseas, and the use of the increased experience and skills of returned managers to benefit the home office. 对于企业而言，要最大限度地长期利用其全球骨干，就需要确保外派和重新整合过程是积极的经历。这意味着仔细的职业规划，在海外期间的支持，以及利用回国管理人员增加的经验和技能，使总部受益。

 Tung suggests these support systems be used for a successful repatriation program : 董建议，这些支持系统可以用于成功的遣返计划

1. A mentor program to monitor the expatriate’s career path while abroad and upon repatriation 一项指导计划，在国外和回国后，监控外籍人士的职业道路

2. The establishment of a special organizational unit for the purposes of career planning and continuing guidance. 设立一个特别组织单位，以便进行职业规划和继续提供指导。

3. System of supplying information and maintaining contacts with the expatriate so that he or she may continue to feel a part of the home organization 一种向外籍人士提供信息并保持联系的制度，以便他或她能继续感到自己是母国组织的一部分

Expatriate Career Management外籍职业生涯管理 : The role of the expatriate spouse外籍配偶的角色

 Many companies are beginning to recognize the importance of providing support for spouses and children. Firms often use informal means, such as intercompany networking, to help find the trailing spouse a position in the same location. They know that with the increasing number of dualcareer couples, if the spouse does not find a position the manager will very likely turn down the assignment. 许多公司开始认识到为配偶和孩子提供支持的重要性。公司经常使用非正式的手段，比如公司内部的网络，来帮助他们的配偶在同一个地方找到一个职位。他们知道随着双职工夫妇数量的增加，如果配偶找不到工作，经理很可能会拒绝这项任务。

 Research found that effective cross-cultural adjustments by spouses is more likely 研究发现，配偶更有可能进行有效的跨文化调整

(1) when firms seek the spouse’s opinion about the international assignment and the expected standard of living, and 当公司询问配偶对海外工作和预期生活水平的意见时

(2) when the spouse initiates his or her own pre-departure training (thereby supplementing the minimal training given Language training and cultural familiarization by firms). 当配偶开始他或她自己的离职前培训时(从而补充公司提供的语言培训和文化熟悉方面的最低培训)。

Important variables in building global teams according to Govindarajan and Gupta are: 建立全球团队的重要变量有:（重点）

• Cultivating trust among members 培养会员之间的信任(信任）

• Overcoming communication barriers 克服沟通障碍（沟通）

• Aligning goals of individual team members调整每个团队成员的目标（团队成员目标）

• Obtaining clarity regarding team objectives 明确团队目标（团队目标）

• Ensuring that the team possesses necessary knowledge and skills 确保团队拥有必要的知识和技能（拥有技能）

 What other techniques do managers actually use to deal with 蒋士云the challenge of achieving cross-cultural collaboration in multinational horizontal projects? 在跨国水平项目中，管理者实际上还使用了哪些其他技术来应对实现跨文化合作的挑战?

1. Drawing upon individual tolerance and self-control 利用个体的宽容和自我控制: In this R&D consortium, the Swiss manager treated all team members the same, ignoring cultural differences, and the team members coexisted with patience and compromise. Many of the members said they were used to multinational projects and just tried to focus on technical issues. 利用个体的宽容和自我控制:在这个研发联盟中，瑞士经理对所有团队成员一视同仁，忽略了文化差异，团队成员在耐心和妥协中共存。许多成员表示，他们习惯了跨国项目，只是试图把重点放在技术问题上。

2. Trial-and-error processes coupled with personal relationships 试错过程加上个人关系: This is a specific strategy in which the project manager sets up social events to facilitate the team members getting acquainted with one another. Then, they discover, through trial and error, what procedures will be acceptable to the group. 试错过程加上个人关系:这是一种特定的策略，项目经理在其中设置社交活动，以促进团队成员相互了解。然后，通过反复试验，他们发现哪些程序是团队可以接受的。

3. Setting up transnational cultures 建立跨国文化: Here the managers used the common professional, or occupational, culture, such as the engineering profession, to bring the disparate members together within a common understanding and process建立跨国文化:在这里，管理者使用共同的专业或职业文化，如工程专业，将不同的成员聚集在一个共同的理解和过程中

本文标签： 重点